The Origin of Asian and Chinese Gangs in Chicago's Chinatown
by Hannah Kim
Gang violence is not isolated in America alone nor is
it isolated to one race or ethnicity. Gang violence is a prevalent problem
in many, if not all, countries and also occurs just as violently. However,
in America, there are hundreds of cultures living together simultaneously,
and gangs that abide by their own cultural values; values that often
clash with one another and also with law officials. Asian gangs have
existed long in the past and still exist today, although they may be
structured and run differently, they originated in the same ways many
other gangs have: in social isolation. When thinking of gang violence,
however, one usually pictures blacks, Hispanics, maybe even whites;
Asians hardly appear to be a threat. However, Asians as well as Asian
gangs have long been a part of American history and especially a part
of Chicago’s. For my paper, I chose to delve into the topic of
Asian gangs and most of what they encompass. I would like to focus the
majority of my paper on the origin of Asian gangs in Chicago, and the
earliest history of Asian gangs begins in Chinatown. I would like to
cover the history of Chinatown and the people that first occupied the
area, and also the two most notorious gangs that are known to have emerged
from that area. Other topics I would like to discuss are the rackets
that these gangs were and are involved with, the structure of gangs,
where these gangs are today, second-generation gangs, and also why the
police find the Asian community so difficult to deal with.
In early Chicago, the majority of Asians were comprised of Chinese.
The Chinese were the first, in comparison to other Asian races, to have
established their own visible community as well as begin gang activity
in Chicago particularly Chinatown. It is impossible to simply discuss
the origin of gangs from when they began in Chicago. The realization
that there are many social, economic, and political factors as to why
the Chinese emigrated from China to America is of great importance.
They brought with them their people, traditions, and cultures; but also
their gangs, the gangs’ values, and structure. The history is
very important to discuss because it gives reason behind many of the
gang cultures as well as the manner in which the Chinese deal with law
officials and vice versa. The history of China spans over vast eras
and decades of Dynasties; however, one particular event fueled the spark
that made the Chinese consider leaving their homeland to start a new
life in another. The first group of Chinese to immigrate to America
was in the early 1900’s. Many left China due to the downfall of
the powerful Ming Dynasty, overthrown by the Ch’ing Dynasty, which
ruled the northern half of China and also made many attempts throughout
their term to takeover the southern half (Potter 1). This did not only
spark emigration to the states, but also had an adverse side affect:
secret societies known as the Triad Societies, which I will discuss
in much greater detail later in my paper. The Ch’ing Dynasty,
ruled by the Manchurians, declare these Triad societies unlawful because
they were originally formed to overthrow the government. After a period
of time, Triads eventually evolved into one of the most notorious and
violent Chinese gangs in China, America, and Chicago (Fuk 4). It was
not long after the Ch’ing Dynasty when people began to immigrate
to America, particularly in the west.
While most chinese began settling in Chicago around 1870,
the largest groups moved out to Chicago in the mid 1940’s. Most
of the Chinese groups started out west in San Francisco to begin work
in the gold mines during the rush in the forties and also to work as
manual labor on the transcontinental railroad. By the 40’s, however,
anti-Asian racism was raging within the white community, and many fled
to the east and the Midwest (Goldsea 1). Although the Chinese, Asians,
and their gangs are prevalent all over the country, I would like to
focus in particular on Chicago’s Chinatown, the first visible
and established town representing Asians, and also how the Chinese flourished
into a productive community. The first Chinatown was located on Polk
and Congress, however it was not long before it moved to the establishment
where it sits today on Wentworth and Cermak. It has become a neighbor
of one of the most historical towns, in politics and gangs, in Chicago.
In between 1940 and 1950, Bridgeport, Chinatown’s neighbor, was
experiencing a time of change and a shift in politics, ethnicity, and
race, even through Bridgeport has always been known for its “ethno-religious”
distinctiveness (Droel 7). Another factor contributing to the influx
of Chinese into Chicago as well as the rest of the country was the liberalization
of the United States’ immigration and naturalization laws. Due
to the gaining of higher proportion of non-registered Chinese, and also
Mexican-Americans, that tend to be apolitical, citywide politics waned,
when once this part of the city was full of city workers and served
by city services (Droel 8). The massive amount of Chinese immigrants
nevertheless became a positive factor for Bridgeport through the development
of Chinatown. During this declination of Bridgeport’s economy,
the Chinese-American became a “stabilizing economic force”
through their restaurants, gift shops, increasing tourism.
“Is Chicago in irreversible decline? The headlines of the past
few years suggest it is. But a close examination of 1990 census tract
data…tells a much different story…in South Side neighborhoods…there
were some interesting developments. One was an unexpectedly sharp rise
in home values in Bridgeport and the communities neighboring it, chiefly
as a result of an influx of new residents from crowded Chinatown nearby.”
-Ed Zotti, Chicago Tribune.
Although Bridgeport’s population in general was decreasing since
the 1960s, most of those leaving Bridgeport were the non-Hispanic whites,
which only made room for the constantly increasing amount of Chinese-Americans.
For example, in 1960, the white community made up about 3,392 people
while the Chinese were 1,709. By 1970, the whites decreased to 811 people
while the Chinese grew to 3,169. The Chinese were increasingly attracted
to this area, Droel gives many reasons why:
1. It was close to Chinatown.
2. It offered better housing values at less cost than in Chinatown or
elsewhere.
3. It proved to be an attractive alternative to upwardly mobile Chinese
who lived in Chinatown where a house was extremely difficult to buy.
4. It was conveniently located close to Chicago’s downtown expressways
and mass transportation.
5. It was seen as having safe streets and providing good security for
property owners, residential or commercial.
6. It offered pathways which had already been well used by other Chinese-Americans.
(17)
Chinatown was the first town that Asians could live in which their cultures
and traditional values were upheld. For the Chinese, it represented
their little China in which assimilation was not required or mandatory
to survive. It could not be ignored however, that the Chinese were living
in an American society in which their children would be raised. It was
not long before the Chinese-Americans began to set up their own social
institutions as other races before them had.
The need for social institutions arises when minorities
of a dominant culture need a place in which their own culture and values
are represented. It was necessary to create an establishment, whose
sponsors were natives to their own country, and also created activities
and social gatherings for themselves and other minorities. Bridgeport
has commonly been host to many social institutions for minority groups,
such as the Italians and the Puerto Ricans. The Chinese, in comparison
to the other minority groups that live there, were slow to establish
their own social institutions. There were only four official institutions
as of 1995, and all are religious based institutions and churches. As
the Chinese began to establish their own community, Bridgeport was also
creating accommodations for the non-English speaking community. For
example, they implemented English as a Second Language (ESL) in many
churches and the Daley Public Library, classes to learn Chinese or Cantonese,
and they also designated Chinese-Americans as precinct captains. Nevertheless
there was still a need for Chinese based institutions. Although there
were many attempts to assimilate and integrate the Chinese community,
social isolation could not be helped. Immigrants often find themselves
estranged or isolated from their community due to language barriers,
culture clashes, as well as rejection by the community or rejection
of the community they live in.
Social institutions were also developed in the Chinese community as
a response to the treat of nativist whites in the 1840’s and 1850’s
and the anti-Asian racism that was occurring, as mentioned before. There
was a need for an “organized fraternal society to protect members”
(Potter 6). And so, Tongs were originally developed as a merchant’s
association but soon evolved in order to help preserve the cultural
identity in the American society and also to provide a social outlet
(Richard C. 2). Although Tongs were developed all over the country as
legitimate businesses and associations, one in particular developed
in Chicago that became notorious in having a hand in developing gang
activity. Although how gang activity branched off of a social legitimate
institution is unknown. Donald Kodluboy offers some reasons why:
The social group to which the gang belongs may determine gang structure
and significance. Gangs may arise and form their structure either as
an accepted or as an unofficial subset of established community groups…In
some instances, criminally involved adults affiliated with a generally
legitimate social organization may influence and provide support for
youth gang development within the structure of the organization. Though
generally not sanctioned by the community elders, such gangs may nonetheless
derive some support from acceptance or tolerance within the sponsoring
group. Therefore, legitimate social structures may provide the converging
and cohesive forces necessary to allow a gang to form. (3)
Even though “Tong gangs” were virtually unheard of in China,
they were a prominent source of gang activity in cities all over the
country and especially in Chicago’s Chinatown. The most notorious
Tong, which developed into a criminal organization, was the On Leong
Merchant’s Association located on 22nd and Wentworth Avenue. Officials
believed that the On Leong Association used the façade of restaurants
and gift shops to cover the illegal gambling and so-called illegal ‘casinos.’
The On Leong Association soon began to be run by their subgroup of gang
members, the On Leongs that have existed as long as the mafia has. Their
presence as well as other illegal activities began when the original
Chinatown on Polk and Congress moved to Wentworth, where it stands today,
“following the migration of the Levee merchants, gambling bosses,
tricksters, and dope fiends from downtown into the South Side badlands”
(Richard C. 3). Although Chinese gangs never had the political ties
and links to the outfit as the Italians or the Irish, they did have
a few. In 1991 the On Leong Merchant Association was under the scrutiny
of the federal racketeering trial that exposed their links to the multi-million
dollar gambling ring and also their ties to the Chicago outfit (Touhy
1). This raid, which failed to reach a verdict, also exposed Wilson
Moy of Chinatown on tax conspiracy charges. Another discovery was made
through this raid was that Moy, known as Willie and often referred to
as the unofficial “mayor of Chinatown,” had also made attempts
of bribery. A Chicago lawyer named Robert Cooley who turned into a mob
informant stated that Moy had given 100,000 dollars to the former 1st
Ward Alderman Fred Roti and Pat Marcy so that Marcy would ‘influence’
the outcome of a murder case in the Cook County Circuit Court in 1981.
Pat Marcy was the infamous secretary of the First Ward Democratic Organization
that had links to the mafia and eventually became a made member, and
working under Tony Accardo and Sam Giancana (Touhy 1). Although the
On Leong headquarters have been converted into a religious and cultural
meeting place called the Pui Tak Center, it is believed that the On
Leongs are still “at an all time high, flush with cash and power.”
There are also many organizations still running gambling rings and have
not changed their criminal ways.
Although there are many sub-gangs that have developed
from Tongs and other Asian gangs, for example the Hip Sing that is often
mentioned but not in detail, there were various criminal activities
run in Chicago by another famous and notorious Asian gang, the Triads.
As aforementioned, the Triads were first a secret society attempting
to overthrow the corrupt Ch’ing Dynasty, however it has evolved
into one of the greatest Chinese criminal organizations in the world.
Symbolized by a triangle representing the union of heaven, earth, and
man, the Triads having dealings in money laundering, drugs, prostitution,
and many more, all of which I will discuss later. The Triads differ
from other criminal organizations in that they follow a rigid structure
or hierarchy that has existed for hundreds of years and is also the
base for many other Asian gangs. A horizontal hierarchical structure
is followed, with the San Chu, the center of the organization, Heung
Chu, the ceremonial officer, Sing Fung, similar to a recruiting officer,
Red Poles encompass many different jobs such as enforcers, hit-men,
and usually have direct control with the operations of the Triad groups.
Straw Sandal and White Paper Fans work with and have the same level
of authority as the Red Poles but hey handle liaisons with other groups
and the Fans are general administrators. Today, the rigid structure
is much more relaxed, however the same model usually applies (Fuk 4).
Officials are elected at annual or bi-annual meetings and any that wish
to be successful must have a Red Pole rank, wealthy, and have the largest
group of followers (Fuk). Other ways in which the Triads differ from
traditional American criminal groups is that they have collections of
loose-knit gangs instead of a monolithic organization. They follow a
horizontal organization, independent from a power base unlike the mafia
or other groups, which may diffuse power from a central core and have
a rigid chain of command. The Chairperson has a limited influence and
is only honorary. Also the Triads’ group is granted full autonomy,
making a profit belong to the individual gangs unlike the mafia where
the profit goes to the organization. The Triads as well as other gangs
that follow this structure, such as the various Triad affiliated gangs
(14K being most prominent in Chicago), settle disputes through negotiations
and is made up similar to a fraternity, but dealing with criminal activities
(Fuk 5). Perhaps it is because they follow this structure as opposed
to others that Asian gang activity and violence is frequently noted
in the news or in statistics. However, do not be fooled by their low
numbers in violence, the Triads have their hand in everything from drugs
and prostitution to extortion and white-collar crimes.
In 1949 the Triads were based in Hong Kong. However, with the massive
amounts of people immigrating into the United States, the Triads took
advantage of the open national borders to spread their business (Mahlmann
5). In 1989, the U.S. Department of Justice estimated that about 100,000
Triad members existed with more than fifty Triad sub-groups. The Triads
have five major groups: the Wo Group, 14K (largest), the United Bamboo
Gang, and the Four Season Gangs. The Triads that run rackets in Chicago,
however, are the 14K Triads. The three major criminal activities that
the 14K is known for in Chicago are drugs, money laundering, and illegal
alien smuggling. Human cargo traffickers, or “snake heads,”
ask for $15,000 to smuggle an illegal alien based in China into the
United States often promised employment and a new stable life. Jim Brongiel
of the Office of International Criminal Justice from the University
of Illinois explained in a 1997 interview that many Chicago banks have
close links to the 14K Triads and are involved with not only money laundering,
but also counterfeiting and computer software theft. These banks often
use the “international” label in their dealings to cover
up the large amounts of money laundered into these banks (Richard C.
3). However, white-collar crimes are just a small part in the moneymaking
game for Triads. The most lucrative and the longest racket would be
the trafficking of opiates and drugs. Many drugs that come into the
Triads hands are often produced and shipped out of the “Burma
Triangle,” also known as the “Golden Triangle” involving
Thailand, Laos, and Burma. The most common drug exported from the Triangle
are opiates or “poppy-based” drugs usually producing “China
White” heroin sold in bulk by Asian wholesale dealers and often
sold by Chinese ‘merchants’ to black or Hispanic street
dealers. The so-called “Asian Connection” is thought to
be the source of a substantial part of heroin traffic in Chicago (Grant
3). Another popular drug to have been imported from the “Golden
Triangle” is the smokeable form of a crystalline methamphetamine
also known as “ice,” also produced in many other Asian countries
such as Korea, Japan, and Hong Kong (Richard C. 4). Today, however,
these drugs are dealt by street gangs, what second generation Asian
gangs have turned into. Second generation gangs, especially Asians,
may make up a small percentage of the entire gang population but it
is still a problem for most communities, especially on the Chicago’s
north side. There is very little, maybe no research on this topic, even
through it is a part of the Asian community. However, the Asian communities
have their own problems when dealing with the authorities.
The Triads have become known world-wide as one of the
largest criminal organizations and are also considered to be more complex
as well. However, law enforcement officials have many obstacles to overcome
in dealing with exposing underground crime links in Chinese gangs. One
reason being the social relationship between Chinese and other Asian
people called “guanxi,” translated as connections or networks.
Guanxi is a social system based on ties between people related by blood
or marriage or between those that originate from the same region or
speak the same dialect. Asian cultures are based on a system of honor
and loyalty creating obligations to one another and against the corrupt
political system they were once used to in China (RCMP 1). Another principle,
the principle of face, shows that many Chinese do not like to report
crimes because it shows that the community has failed, which shames
them. Many Asian governments (China, North Korea, and Burma) have used
the police as a weapon to suppress political discontents and to protect
their powers rather than to enforce social justice. Family ties branch
out much farther than the typical North American sense to others that
may not be blood related. This presents a problem to law officials because
the Asian community does not like to aid police or the government. Another
problem for law enforcement officials is not only the cultural clashes
that exist between Asians and Americans but the fact that Chinese criminal
enterprises are often connected between oceans and countries. These
criminal organizations take full advantage of the open national borders
and conduct illegal businesses all over the world and if they are caught
they can flee to another country and hide. The Chinese are also seen
to be very flexible and patient in their business dealings, always considering
their options and extremely cautious of their distributing habits. Also,
the fact that many Chinese-Americans are bilingual pose another obstacle
for the uni-lingual police officers and government officials. “Armed
with their large sums of capital and shielded by their legitimate front
companies, they have continued enriching themselves through their involvement
in illegal business ventures with minimum risk” (Fuk 6). Their
“cash poor, income rich, and frugal lifestyle” which was
considered to be an economic stabilizing force in Bridgeport has now
become one of many problems for law enforcement (Droel).
The Chinese have been a long established community in Chicago, however
there still remains a great lack of information and research dealing
with their lives in America. No books, movies, or biographies have been
written about them compared to the Mafia, which is often glorified in
the media. Although there were and are a great deal of Asian gangs that
have stemmed from the Tongs and Triads, I was unable to discuss them
in any detail because of the lack of information. Most of the research
named lists of other Chinese gangs but did not talk specifically about
them. Many articles stated the same facts over and over again without
giving any kind of new information. I believe that given more time,
resources, and a great deal of research this paper could become a book
of information, but I tried to keep it limited to what I really knew
about Asian criminal links to Chicago, which was not much. My original
topic was to deal with second generation gangs, however, not much information
was out there, only a paper or so on why they develop. In conclusion,
I found that although Chinese and Asian gangs may have originated in
Chicago through social institutions, like the social athletic clubs,
they are followed and run by a hierarchy and structure that has existed
for hundreds of years. Like most minority groups of gangs, the Chinese
gangs in Chinatown developed through social isolation and somewhat in
part due to strain theory in which people make money any way they can
in order to survive. However, no research has been developed on it.
Also, Asian gangs may run the same sorts of rackets that other gangs
are involved in, however they run them in a different manner and still
hold their traditional values and morals. Gangs may seem to be similar
in the fact that they participate in similar illegal activities, nevertheless,
each gang is different behind closed doors in which old positive morals
and values are upheld in the midst of such criminal doings. With more
research and information, however, Asian gangs have the potential to
become a fascinating topic in terms of gang research, their history
and culture cannot be compared to any other.
Bibliography
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C., Richard. Spotlight in Asian Organized Crime.
Search International Historic Chicago Organized Crime Files.
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Che, Wai-Kin. "The Triad Societies in Hong
Kong in the 1990's." The International Review of Police
Development. 1990.
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Droel, William. Historic Chinatown and Bridgeport:
The New Synergism. Institute of Urban Live. Chicago: 1995.
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Fuk, Peter Ip Pau, Chief Inspector of Hong Kong
Police. Organized Crime in Hong Kong. Organized Crime and
21st Century Seminar. 26 June, 1999.
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Granger, Bill. "The Other Chinatown: A Close-Knit
Neighborhood Where Some of the Old Ways Live On," Chicago Sun-Times.
10 October, 1977.
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Goldsea.
Is Chicago the Most Underrated City
for Asian Americans? Goldsea Asian Air Forum. 9 May, 2002.
<
http://www.goldsea.com>
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Grant, Amy. Rising Gang Violence Result of "Turf
Wars." Emergency News SVC. 1992.
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Kians, Harry. Chicago's Chinatown. Institute
of China Studies. Lincolnwood: 1992.
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